ࡱ>  Rbjbj̵ G$צצP , @0+++$OOOOPl TO)|__u^S)U)U)U)U)U)U)D,.tU)-+U)$++)$$$++S)$S)$$:',++5(g9OV' )L)0)'RZ/$Z/5($5(+( :   Back to the Future: Dam Removal and Native Salmon Restoration on the Elwha River By Brian Footen and Jovana Brown Abstract: Dams on the Elwha River in Washington State have blocked salmon migration for one hundred years. These dams are now being removed. The Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe is looking forward to having its treaty rights to fish from the Elwha River restored. This case examines two approaches for restoring harvestable, viable, and self-sustaining salmon runs to the River. Introduction We all owe a big thank you to the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe. They never gave up on getting those two dams torn down, and today that dream is becoming a reality. For 100 years they have had to wait for their treaty rights to be restored and the salmon to return. Billy Frank, Jr., Chairman, Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission, (NWIFC, (2011) News,) On September 17, 2011 the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe celebrated the start of the demolition of two dams on the Elwha River. The ceremony included drumming, singing, dancing and a blessing by tribal elder  HYPERLINK "http://www.seattlepi.com/?controllerName=search&action=search&channel=news&search=1&inlineLink=1&query=%22Ben+Charles%22" Ben Charles Sr., who made several references to tribal ancestors looking down from the clouds and witnessing the event. (Warren, 2011) Attending the ceremonies were the governor, the two Washington US senators, the Secretary of the Interior, the Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Indian Affairs, and numerous other dignitaries. Prior to the ceremony there was a week of celebration including storytelling, drumming, a fundraising gala for the tribes education program, interviews with elders, and a two-day conference on river restoration efforts with scientists from all over the world. (NWIFC, (2011) News,). The opportunity to examine the success of salmon recolonization and the accompanying ecological evolutionary processes of a river with miles of habitat within a National Park is rare. The salmon recovery decisions made by fishery managers play an integral role in the success of the recolonization efforts. In the movie Back to the Future the main character is sent back in time by a mad scientist. During his trip back he alters things in the past that threaten his existence in the future. The lesson of the movie is that dwelling on your past puts your future at risk. In the case of the Elwha River restoration arguments are being made that because the doors will be opened up to high quality habitat the River can create the salmon runs of the past. This case investigates whether trying to return the Elwha River salmon to a specific past threatens a better future. In addition this case debates whether or not there really are only two different futures for the river, one that actively works towards enhancing and protecting the salmonid production, and one that passively relies on natural processes to restore salmon. The following case explores both approaches to restoring harvestable, viable, self sustaining salmon runs to the Elwha River. Two dams on the Elwha River on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington State are being removed. This is the largest dam removal project to date in the United States. Since most of the Elwha River and its tributaries are in the Olympic National Park, the River represents miles of unaltered salmon habitat. However, salmon have been blocked from entering this habitat since 1910. The Olympic Peninsula occupies the farthest northwest corner of Washington State. It is a land of rugged mountains, old growth forests, and abundant wildlife. The Strait of San Juan De Fuca borders the north, the Salish Sea (Puget Sound) the east, and the Pacific Ocean is the western boundary of the Peninsula. Eleven major rivers drain the Olympic Mountains. The fourth largest of these is the Elwha River, with a drainage area of 270 square miles (U.S. Bur of Rec). The Elwha River flows northward 45 miles from its headwaters in the Olympic Mountains to its outlet in the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, near the town of Port Angeles.  Soundwaves, U.S. Geological Survey, Nov-Dec., 1996 Elwha Klallam People The Elwha Klallam Indians have lived in villages on the shores of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca by the Elwha River since time immemorial. They enjoyed the riches of the River and the sea and also travelled upriver into the mountains to gather medicinal plants, berries, and bear grass, and to hunt for deer, bear and elk (Valadez, p. 22). The Klallam signed the Treaty of Point No Point in 1855. Like many treaties of the time, it stipulated that the Klallam move from their homeland. They were supposed to relocate to the Skokomish Reservation in Twana territory on the Hood Canal. But the Klallam did not want to leave. They preferred to remain in their own villages near their fishing and gathering places and where their ancestors were laid to rest (Valadez, p. 23). During the century following the Elwha Klallam people were continually dispossessed of their villages and their homes. When white settlers or timber companies wanted the land, the Klallam were repeatedly moved off their land and homes. This went on until the Indian Reorganization Act was passed in 1936. One proviso of this legislation purchased several hundred acres of land on the Elwha River floodplain for the Tribe. Finally in 1968 this land was made the Lower Elwha Indian Reservation (Elwha.Org, Brief history of the Elwha River, p. 2). The Elwha River Dams The Elwha River was the most productive salmon river on the north slope of the Olympic Peninsula. The Elwha was particularly noteworthy for the chinook run which was famous for the size and vitality of the fish returning to spawn (Elwha.Org. Brief history of the Elwha River, p. 3). In all there were 10 runs of anadromous fish in the River: cutthroat trout, native char, winter and summer steelhead, coho, pink, chum, sockeye and the spring and summer chinook (U.S. Olympic National Park, 2007). At the beginning of the 20th century, however, the rivers of the Pacific Northwest were viewed in terms of their potential for economic development. U.S. Indian Field Service ethnologist Albert B. Reagan (1871-1936) toured the Olympic Peninsula in 1903 and described it in detail. While acknowledging that the scenery of the region is grand, he went on to describe the regions rivers: All of these will make fairly good logging streams and are also capable of being harnessed to run mills and electric plants (Reagan, 1908, p.135, p.138). Thus two dams were built on the Elwha River to provide hydropower. The first was the Elwha Dam constructed between 1910 and 1913 five miles from the mouth of the River. Though Washington State law required that dams be built with fish ladders, none were provided for the Elwha Dam. Construction of the dam prevented salmon from accessing 80 miles of main stream and tributary habitat (Duda, et al, 2008). Salmon were now confined to the five miles of River below the dam. Every year salmon returned to the base of Elwha Dam, never to complete their journey upstream (Busch, 2008-2009, p. 13). A hatchery was built to mitigate the loss of salmon, but it failed and was closed in 1922. When the Elwha Dam was completed, its builder Thomas Aldwell, stated: The Elwha was no longer a wild stream crashing down to the Strait: the Elwha was peace and power and civilization (U.S. Olympic National Park, 2007). The Elwha River was not in fact at peace. As the dam began to fill with water in 1912, it blew out and flooded the Elwha Klallam families living at the mouth of the River. It was immediately rebuilt as a jerry-rigged patchwork of trees, rocks, dirt and concrete held in place by gravity and the original concrete structure.... (Elwha.Org, Brief history of the Elwha River, p. 2). This structure has remained dangerously in place until 2011. The second dam, the Glines Canyon Dam was built between 1925 and 1927, eight miles upstream from the Elwha Dam (U.S. Olympic National Park, 2007). The new dam was also built without fish ladders. Both dams have been operated to maximize hydropower production, with water stored and released to increase power production. (Duda, et al. 2008, p. 2) The operation of the dams in this manner, with spillways releasing extra water during the rainy season increased flooding downstream on the Elwha Klallam Reservation. In 1938 the Olympic National Park was established and the Glines Canyon Dam was now inside the boundaries of the Park. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is responsible for licensing and relicensing dams that are not built or owned by the federal government. The Glines Canyon Dam was licensed by FERC in 1926 for fifty years, but the Elwha Dam had not been licensed because it was constructed before the Federal Power Act established FERC. Crown Zellerbach purchased the dams in 1936. The company applied for a license for the Elwha Dam in 1968 and the Glines Canyon Dam license was up for renewal in 1973. This marked the beginning of a long and involved licensing and relicensing process for Elwha and Glines Canyon Dams. Much of the controversy focused on whether FERC had the authority to license or re-license either dam. Nevertheless, FERC required Crown Zellerbach to obtain a routine safety assessment of the dams. The report stated that the Elwha Dam was unsafe and subject to failure during high flood levels (Elwha.Org, Brief history of the Elwha River, p. 4). Crown Zellerbach disagreed and refused to repair the dam. The Tribes Advocacy for Dam Removal The Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe hired its own engineering firm to assess dam safety in the late 1970s. The resulting report from the Tribes engineering firm warned of possible catastrophic failure. This convinced FERC to issue an emergency dam safety order requiring the repairs recommended by the Tribe (Busch, 2008-2009, p. 9). As the FERC relicensing process dragged on, it became more and more obvious that there was no way to restore the Rivers anadromous fish runs with the dams in place. The Tribe was the first to advocate for dam removal. In January 1986, the Tribe filed a motion before FERC asking the Commission to implement an interim fisheries restoration plan and a long-term plan for the phase-out and removal of the dams (Elwha.Org, Brief history of the Elwha River, p. 5). The Tribe, in partnership with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) now the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries and the US Fish & Wildlife Service carried out the key scientific studies and became a key player in the negotiations that led to the Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act in 1992 (Busch, 2008-2009, pp. 9-10).  The goal of the legislation was the full restoration of the Elwha River ecosystem and native anadromous fisheries. It authorized the Secretary of the Interior to acquire the projects and remove the dams if necessary to meet this goal. After investigation, the Secretary determined that removal of both dams was the only alternative to achieve the goal of the Elwha River ecosystem and native anadromous fisheries (Busch, 2008-32009, p. 15). The purchase of the dam sites by the National Park Service removed them from the FERC process. The Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe worked with its federal and state partners to develop the scientific framework for restoring the ecosystem and fisheries on the Elwha River (Ward, et. Al. 2008, p. ix). A requirement of one of the Tribes Federal partners, the National Marine Fisheries Service, was that a hatchery had to be part of the dam removal plan. The goals of this restoration plan are discussed below. Treaty Rights In order to understand the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribes treaty rights to harvest salmon, it is necessary to briefly examine the history of treaties in the Pacific Northwest. White migration westward along the Oregon Trail increased in the latter part of the 1840s. The Washington Territory was created by Congress in 1853. In the 1850s, sawmills, gristmills, dotted the Puget Sound landscape and Natives outnumbered whites by perhaps ten or even fifteen to one (Reddick & Collins, 2005, pp. 377-378). Newly appointed governor and ex-officio superintendent of Indian Affairs for Washington Territory, Isaac Stevens, arrived in Olympia in 1853. His mission was to speedily conclude treaties with the Indians, place them on reservations, and open the land for white settlement (Gates, 1955, p. 53). The Indian peoples of the Pacific Northwest depended on fishing, gathering, hunting, and trading for their livelihood.(Woods, 2005, p. 412). It soon became apparent to Stevens and his advisors that the treaties would have to contain provisions for the Indians to continue these activities outside of their reservations. Stevens assured the Indians at the treaty councils that though they would move their homes to the new reservations, they could travel. fish, and gather anywhere they wanted. (Reddick and Collins, 2005, p.384). Therefore the treaties that Stevens signed with the Indian tribes had the following: The right of taking fish at usual and accustomed grounds and stations is further secured to said Indians, in common with all citizens of the United States; and of erecting temporary houses for the purpose of curing; together with the privilege of hunting and gathering roots and berries on open and unclaimed lands. Provided, however, that they shall not take shell-fish from any beds staked or cultivated by citizens. (Treaty of Point No Point, Article IV) The third treaty council, Point No Point, was held January 25-26, 1855 on the northern tip of the Kitsap Peninsula. It was attended by delegates from the SKlallam, Skokomish, Elwha and other tribes. The Treaty Council minutes show that a number of Indians clearly spoke their minds. LHau-at-scha-uk, a To-anhooch said: I do not want to leave the mouth of the River. I do not want to leave my old home, and my burying ground. I am afraid I will die if I do. Nevertheless, on day two of the council, the treaty was signed. The Indians of what is now western Washington continued to attempt to fish in their usual and accustomed off-reservation fishing sites. Many of the tribes lived at the mouths of rivers and fished only for what they needed, allowing sufficient fish to swim upstream to spawn. As we have seen, the Elwha Tribe had their fishing rights curtailed when the Elwha Dam was built at river mile five. Other tribes were prevented from fishing in their usual sites by competition from white fishers, by restrictive state fishing regulations, and by the scarcity of fish due to increasing impacts on fish habitat from logging, dam building, water withdrawals for irrigation, mining, and the rapid growth of the areas cities and towns. By the 1960s 1970, the tribes were only catching 2 5 % of the total amount of salmon being harvested. The Indian fishers had been almost completely squeezed out of their historic fishing by commercial and sport salmon fishers and by the enforcement of State fishing laws and regulation. (Brown and Footen 2011, p 4) A series of court cases in the 20th century gradually began to recognize limited Indian fishing rights. The most significant decision occurred in U.S. v. Washington, 1974 (Boldt decision) Treaty tribes in western Washington and the federal government had filed suit asking for an allotted share of the salmon harvest. The suit included three things: 1) a share of the harvest, 2) the inclusion of hatchery fish in the salmon harvest, and 3) assurance that their treaties protected the fish from habitat destruction (Blumm and Steadman, 2009, p. 19). The decision by federal district Judge George Boldt affirmed the tribes fishing rights. Judge Boldt interpreted the treaty phrase in common to mean that tribal fishers were entitled to catch 50% of the harvestable salmon returning to their usual and accustomed fishing grounds. However, he deferred the questions of hatchery fish and habitat protection noting that the court would decide at a later time. Phase II of U.S. v. Washington began with federal district Judge William Orricks 1980 decision that hatchery fish were included in the tribes share of the harvest and that salmon habitat must be protected. Washington State appealed the decision and the case went to the court of appeals three times. At the end of these cases, Orricks decision on the inclusion of hatchery fish in the tribal allocation remained, but the issue of habitat was dismissed until there was a specific factual dispute to rule on. The tribes later brought such a specific habitat case to court. The 9th Circuits 1985 decision on the inclusion of hatchery fish stated: The hatchery programs have served a mitigating function since their inception in 1895.They are designed essentially to replace natural fish lost to non-Indian degradation of the habitat and commercialization of the fishing industryUnder these circumstances, it is only just to consider such replacement fish as subject to allocation. For the tribes to bear the full burden of the decline caused by the non-Indian neighbors without sharing the replacement achieved through the hatcheries would be an inequity and inconsistent with the Treaty (U.S. v. Washington, 759f 2nd 1353m 1360) The court ordered Puget Sound Salmon Management Plan provides the framework for coordinating these programs, treaty fishing rights, artificial production objectives, and artificial production levels. (Puget Sound Chinook, 2004, p.1) U.S. v. Washington, 1974 (Boldt decision) provided the basis for co-management of the salmon resource by the treaty tribes and the state of Washington. The treaty tribes in western Washington now own and operate forty-one hatcheries. Native Salmon vs. Hatcheries The Indian tribes in what is now Washington State signed treaties in the 1850s that reserved their right to catch fish in their usual and accustomed fishing sites. As noted above the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe signed such a treaty in 1855. They are therefore legally entitled to have salmon to harvest. This treaty right has been almost completely curtailed since the Elwha Dam was completed in 1913. Although the Tribe operated a hatchery, there was no comparison with the abundant fish runs on the Elwha River before it was dammed. Now that the dams are being removed and the River restored, as much as possible, to its natural state there is again an opportunity for salmon to populate the more productive reaches of the River. On the one hand, salmon could re-populate the river on their own. The ability to recolonize rivers after large catastrophic disturbances is an integral part of their survival strategy and a major reasons they have been able to survive an evolving paleo Pacific Northwest climate regime and anthropogenic or human caused habitat impacts. On the other hand, the Elwha Tribe and its federal partners have developed a carefully researched species specific restoration plan utilizing the best available science which emphasizes native stock recovery with hatchery supplementation when and where necessary. This plan is intended to provide the best opportunity to restore harvestable, self-sustaining, viable salmon runs to the Elwha River. However wild salmon advocates maintain that hatchery fish should not be used for supplementation because of their potential negative impact on wild salmon. Why is the use of hatchery fish so controversial? Is it possible for the wild salmon and steelhead to recolonize the River after more than 100 years of dams blocking their migration route? Should the Lower Elwha Tribes treaty right to catch fish continue to be denied while passive recolonization by wild salmon takes place? Elwha River Habitat: Current and Future Conditions A detailed understanding of baseline habitat conditions is paramount for a successful attempt at salmon recovery. Restoration strategies and options are reduced the less the habitat is able to support natural production. Some of the most diverse and productive riverine habitats in Puget Sound are the coastal habitats like the Elwha. Habitat degradation from anthropogenic activity have severely altered the production capabilities of the lower reaches of the watershed. Elwha River dams not only limited fish returns to the middle and upper portions of the river but have interrupted the natural processes of the entire river ecosystem. Over 17 million cubic yards of sediment have been stored by the dams (DOI et al 1995). Alteration of sediment transfer impacts the lower river habitat but also the estuarine and nearshore environment in the vicinity of the river outlet. Dams block the distribution of large woody debris that is recruited into the system. The recruitment of large woody debris (LWD) from the upper watershed into the lower river has been virtually eliminated. Consequently freshwater and marine habitat available to salmon below the Elwha Dam has been severely degraded. Dam construction is not the only habitat alterations that have impacted salmonid production in the lower river. The area below the dams has also been impacted by managed flow regimes from dam operations. Excessive water temperatures have been recorded in the lower river reaches as well. Floodplain degradation from diking, logging, and channelization have degraded the riverine habitat features that salmon depend on. This has significantly reduced the abundance of native salmonids. However, anadromous salmonids still return as fragmented populations some of which like coho and chinook have been supplemented with hatchery production over the years. The middle river between the dams have undergone similar physical but different biological impacts, while the upper Elwha has undergone similar biological impacts but has not been physically impacted (Pess et al. 2008). Dam removal will further degrade habitat in the lower and middle river reaches. Fine sediments that have settled to the bottom of the reservoirs behind the dams over decades will become suspended and transported downstream. When these fine sediments become suspended the flowing water becomes dirty which is referred to as turbid. Excessive turbidity is harmful to juvenile salmon. Fish exposed to turbidity between 50 and 100 parts per million (ppm) stop feeding, suffer gill abrasion, and become stressed leaving them more susceptible to predation and pathogens. At turbidity levels above 1,000 ppm, the sediment in the water column causes mortality (DOI, 1995). Dam removal may cause turbidity levels to exceed 1,000 (ppm) for extended periods of time and during above average river flows levels will increase to over 10,000 ppm. After two to three years when dam removal is complete, the turbidity levels may exceed 30,000 ppm at times (U.S. Bur. Of Rec.). Sediment loads will exceed 10,000 ppm during dam removal, therefore it is important when considering a salmonid recovery plan to expect juvenile production from fish rearing naturally in the Elwha River below Glines Canyon Dam to be near zero. Fine sediment impacts are not limited to juvenile salmon. While adult fish are more capable of surviving high turbidity levels caused by suspended sediment, the impacts from larger sediment released into the lower watershed will be detrimental to adult salmon spawning habitat. Salmon require clean gravel in which to lay their eggs. When these gravel get clogged by the types of sediment released during dam removal oxygen levels necessary for egg development are lowered and in cases where you have very elevated turbidity levels the accompanying larger sediment that falls from the water column covers the redds (salmon nests) entombing the eggs and any juvenile fish they may produce. Finally large quantities of gravel sized substrate will also become mobile during dam removal. This newly recruited substrate will be unstable and susceptible to mobility at higher flows. As a result redds created in these newer substrates are at greater risk of being scoured away. Habitat above the dam is often referred to as pristine. However the use of this term when describing this habitat in relation to salmon production now and for several years after dam removal is a misrepresentation of the habitats potential for salmon production. Although the majority of the mechanical processes that are beneficial to salmon are intact in the areas above the dams, the exclusion of salmon and the marine derived nutrients they possess over the last 100 plus years has certainly decreased the salmonid production capabilities of this part of the river. After salmon spawn they die. The remaining carcasses contain large quantities of nutrients acquired during the time the salmon where living in the ocean eating and growing. These nutrients are essential to building a robust macro invertebrate community. These macro invertebrates in turn become the primary food source for the juvenile salmon rearing in the river, trying to grow big enough to be successful upon entering the estuarine and marine environments. Survival is decreased for undernourished and smaller juvenile salmon that enter these environments. After dam removal and the accompanying negative impacts from removal have abated the habitat in the middle and lower river will not be functioning at a level necessary to support abundant salmon runs. Of the five species of salmon to be restored all species will rely on the habitat of middle and lower river. Some species like pink and chum salmon have life histories that do not utilize the upper reaches of the river at all. Finally impacts to the estuary need to be considered. The health of the estuary will play a fundamental role in the recovery of all salmonid species in the watershed. Therefore restoring the Elwha estuary will also be necessary to achieve the ecosystem restoration intended to result from the dam removals. Hatcheries as a Recovery Tool A 2011 report by the Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission stated: More than 100 salmon enhancement facilities are operated in western Washington by treaty tribes, the state Department of Fish and Wildlife, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the largest salmon hatchery system in the world. More than 100 million salmon and steelhead are released annually from western Washington hatcheries, more than 35 million of those by the tribes (NWIFC, 2011 , p. 3). Seventy to eighty percent of all salmon and steelhead that are caught are hatchery fish. The origin of hatcheries began in the 1850ss when, following techniques developed in Europe, experimenters began to fertilize and raise fish eggs in an artificial environment (Naish, et al, 2008, p. 71). By the 1870s it was apparent that overfishing was already depleting salmon in the Columbia River. In 1875 Spencer Baird, US Fish Commissioner, warned about over fishing, dams, and habitat destruction. However he also stated that regulations on fishing were impossible to enforce so instead he advocated the artificial propagation of salmon (Lichatowich. 1999, p. 112). Hatcheries would thus eliminate the need for regulation. The hatcheries were based on the model of agriculture and farms. Animals were raised on farms. So fish could be raised in a similar manner. At the end of the 19th century agriculture represented both the triumph of civilized societies and the promise of the future. Comparing a fish hatchery to a farm fixed the idea of progress associated with agriculture onto artificial propagation (Lichatowich, 1999, p. 117). The purpose of the hatcheries was to produce fish for the commercial fishers. The early experience with hatcheries reflected an overarching assumption that human intervention could improve upon and successfully manipulate nature.Thus although fishery managers were aware of the adverse effects of habitat destruction in the 19th century, they either chose not to attempt to avoid habitat loss or presumed they could not control it. Instead, they focused on enhancing salmon production despite the habitat loss (Blumm, 2002, p. 111). As the number of hatcheries on tributaries of Columbia River grew fish eggs were brought in from different basins and from as far away as Alaska. Plentiful fish from one part of the basin would repopulate other parts of the basin where fish were in decline. (NW Council) It was assumed that fish of the same species were largely interchangeable. (Puget Sound Chinook, 2004). Lichatowich states that this transfer of eggs among hatcheries was a particularly insidious practice that lasted throughout most of the 20th century. Mass transfers of salmon between rivers disrupted thousands of years of reproductive isolate and destroyed the adaptive relationship between the salmon and their home stream (Lichatowich, 1999, pp. 25,26). In the later decades of the 20th century fish biologists began to have a clearer understanding of the impacts that hatchery fish had on wild fish (Northwest Power & Conservation Council, p. 4). In the 1970s and 1980s supplementation or conservation hatcheries were started by the Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife and later by the tribes. These were initiated to help recover wild stocks and to minimize the adverse genetic and disease impacts of hatchery fish on wild stocks. ESA and Hatcheries The listing of four salmon and steelhead species as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1974 has had an impact on hatcheries. The following Puget Sound and Washington coast salmon species have been listed: Puget Sound Chinook - listed as threatened in 1999; Hood Canal & Strait of Juan de Fuca summer chum listed as threatened in 1999; Lake Ozette sockeye listed as threatened in 1999; and Puget Sound steelhead listed as threatened in 2007. Puget Sound/ Strait of Georgia coho have been listed as a species of concern (but not yet as threated or endangered) (US NOAA, ESA Act status 2009). Many proposed management alternatives for the conservation and recovery of Pacific Salmon involve some form of interaction between salmon produced in a hatchery and those spawning naturally. This interaction often times is in the form of supportive breeding where hatchery fish are released with naturally spawning fish in order to supplement low production of the natural stock. In some cases the population of the stock in need of recovery is so low that brood from adjacent river systems is used to save the stock from extinction. In other cases in basin brood can be used for hatchery production to supplement the natural stock. However the most common form of interaction between hatchery and natural salmon occurs from hatcheries that are primarily used for mitigating the habitats inability to produce harvestable numbers of fish. A proportion of these hatchery fish that are produced for harvest do not return to the hatchery and stray into the river spawning with the naturally produced fish. Domestication, the raising of animals in a captive environment, can impact the ability of this animal to perform at optimal levels in the wild. When a salmons ability to survive in the wild is decreased it is referred to as a fitness loss. Although the degree of fitness loss differs dependant on salmon species, the amount of time in hatchery and whether or not the fish from the hatchery originated from the basin in which they are released, it has been well documented that when hatchery salmon spawn in the wild with natural fish the fitness of the offspring can be reduced (Busack, 1995; Waples, 1991). The mechanism that causes a reduction in fitness is the retention of deleterious genes in the hatchery stock that otherwise would have been weeded out in the natural environment. When hatchery fish stray onto the spawning grounds these genes can than be transferred to their natural counterparts. Coho, steelhead and spring chinook are the species that have been documented to decrease the overall fitness and production capabilities of natural populations in which they stray (Flagg, et al, 2000). Most research has shown that salmon species that spend more time in the hatchery tend to have greater impacts on the genetic integrity of the natural stocks Because coho, spring chinook and steelhead spend a year in freshwater rearing before migrating to the ocean, these species for the most part are raised for one year in the hatchery as well. When the fish that retain deleterious genes are raised to larger sizes by spending more time in the hatchery their prospect for survival to adulthood is increased. In some cases these adult fish, when returning to spawn, stray onto the natural spawning grounds instead of returning to the hatchery. In these cases the deleterious genes are transferred to naturally spawning fish progeny and over many generations this genetic exchange can reduce the fitness of the natural stock. The negative impacts of genetic exchange between hatchery and natural fish is complex. For some species and hatchery programs it can be substantial. For others like fall chinook salmon which are released as 90 day old fry no research has been conducted that indicates fitness loss from these hatchery reared adults spawning with natural fish. Captive breeding and the use of out of basin brood are strategies that need to be closely monitored. Recent research has indicated that the regular infiltration of natural origin brood into the hatchery can reduce domestication impacts. Therefore it is important to emphasize the importance of natural origin breeders both in the hatchery and river even if the habitat of the river is unable to support a self sustaining population. This means that restoring and conserving the populations habitat is the most effective method of reducing fitness loss from the infusion of domesticated genes into the natural population. The Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission, a service organization to 20 western Washington treaty tribes has stated: While hatchery fish are not an acceptable substitute for wild salmon, and hatcheries are not a replacement for healthy ecosystems that naturally produce harvestable levels of wild salmon, these facilities provide a meaningful level of harvest that would not otherwise occur. Because of the need to protect wild salmon stocks, without hatcheries, there would be no salmon fishing at all in western Washington (NWIFC, 2007). As a result of the ESA listings and the increasing critiques of hatcheries, the U.S. Congress created the Hatchery Reform Project in 2000. This project brought together a panel of independent scientists to make recommendations on how hatcheries can help recover and conserve naturally spawning salmon populations and support sustainable fisheries. More than one thousand recommendations of this scientific panel are now being implemented by tribal, state, and federal co-managers (NWIFC, 2007). The Hatchery Reform Project published a guide that through adaptive management practices by the co-managers have refined the best practices for hatchery programs. The metrics for these best practices are delineated by categorizing the recovery role of the natural stock for which the hatchery stock will impact. These metrics define gene flow between hatchery and natural fish by managing the proportion of natural fish used in hatchery brood and the proportion of hatchery fish allowed to stray on the spawning grounds. The level of gene flow allowed is determined by whether or not the natural population is defined as Primary, Contributing or Stabilizing in its role to recover the Endangered Species in question. Primary stocks are required to have less gene flow between hatchery and natural where there is less concern about genetic transfer for Stabilizing populations. The fact that two of the Elwha River salmon species, the Puget Sound chinook and Puget Sound steelhead, are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act means that NMFS/ NOAA Fisheries is closely involved in the Elwha River salmon and steelhead restoration efforts. The highly scrutinized use of hatcheries for recovery of salmon in the Elwha is being treated independently of the reform recommendations of the Hatchery Reform Project of 2000. Passive Recovery: Its What Salmon Do Salmon have survived for thousands of years in the Pacific Northwest. They recolonized the region over 15,000 years ago as the Cordilleran Ice sheet which had covered the area in ice retreated northward for the final time. The riverine habitats of the region for the next several thousand years were inhospitable areas of high disturbance. The mechanisms responsible for the formation of these new river systems were highly energetic. During the formative period debris flows or other catastrophic events capable of wiping out entire runs of salmon in any given return year were common. To survive these hazardous environments salmon evolved a variety of life history strategies. These life history strategies utilized diverse temporal and spatial elements. In other words the salmon evolved so as not to put all their eggs in one basket by stretching out the timing of their spawning, migration, and rearing. In addition they increase survival probability by utilizing a variety of spawning and rearing locations as well. However even this diversification of juvenile and adult survival strategies through time and space at times was not enough to overcome some of the catastrophic events such as the breaking of glacial dams or volcanic eruptions that were occurring during this formative period in the Northwest. To survive these events salmon had one more trick up their sleeve; meta-populations. Meta-populations are groups of fish in adjacent river basins that share some of the genetic makeup of the fish in nearby river systems. In order to acquire these genes from nearby rivers salmon utilize another life history strategy referred to as straying. Straying gives salmon the ability to re-establish nearby populations that have been extirpated by storing genetic elements related to the specific habitat condition of adjacent rivers. Salmon gained these genes by straying into the adjacent river at one time, exchanging genetic material with the fish present in the system to which they strayed and hatching juveniles that as adults returned back to their river of origin. This stored genetic material becomes valuable when the habitat from the nearby system is once again able to support salmon. Straying occurs from the river of origin to the adjacent system and because the salmon have retained a genetic adaptation for the nearby river to which they are straying the recolonizing efforts are more likely to be successful. This plasticity of the salmon species has allowed it to survive in modern times as well. Habitat degradation has put the species survival strategies to the test. Although large portions of salmon habitat that was once accessible are now blocked by dams, dikes and culverts the ability of salmon to recolonize these areas in modern times has not been widely tested. The eruption of Mt. St. Helens gave salmon ecologists the opportunity to observe the recolonization success of a few species of salmon in the Toutle River. Fish mortality following the eruption was not documented but the extreme temperatures and sediment from mudflows must have made it complete. For the next two years after the eruption, salmon and steelhead that were returning to the river had been born under pre-eruption conditions. Therefore they were unable to recognize the new chemical properties of the river as a result of the massive amounts of sediment that had been deposited from mud flows. Instead of returning to their river of origin these Toutle River salmon strayed into the nearby Columbia River. The fish that did return were faced with extremely limited habitat conditions. Sediment levels remained an issue for juvenile salmon and adult salmon redds for several years after the eruption. Returning adults were having some success and exceeding biologist expectations. However the use of fish traps that allowed salmon to be captured and the adults to be distributed in higher reaches of the river as well as hatchery releases and improved ocean conditions all were necessary for the reproductive success of the salmon returning to the degraded river system. An additional artificial method was implemented to help boost salmon survival. It came in the form of a sediment retention dam that was built on the north fork of the Toutle in order to help alleviate the impacts resulting from the continued pulses of sediment flowing into the system. The dam provided some benefits initially, however over time as sediment was impounded behind the dam in large quantities, the ability of the dam to control sediment impacts decreased. From 1985 to 1989 the average steelhead escapement was nearly 3,000 fish, from 1999 to 2004 the escapement average was 260 fish. Certainly a variety of both freshwater and marine habitat conditions are responsible for the decrease in steelhead abundance in the river but the ability of the stock to have supported itself without hatchery and trap and haul management must be considered (Michalet, 2007) Climate change has given us another opportunity to study natural salmon colonization that is occurring in Glacier Bay, Alaska. Glacial recession in Glacier Bay has created streams of different ages (35 to 220 years) and stages of development which provide unique insights into the natural colonization of stream habitat by salmonids. These data have showed that young streams distant from source populations of pink salmon took 30 years to be colonized. This new population of fish increased in abundance from a few hundred to over 10,000 in a few generations which for pink salmon is about 6 to 8 years. The study showed colonization could happen within 10 years for young streams that were closer to source populations. However sockeye and coho population abundance remained low because in these streams the lack of habitat complexity such as connections to lakes, pool habitat and the woody debris complexes needed for these species success was limited. The study found habitat maturity to be important. Riparian vegetation needed to be of sufficient size and quantity in order to create the complexity needed to stabilize the dynamic systems. The findings from Glacier Bay are important when considering natural recovery of salmon populations and illustrate that recovery may take a long time depending on availability of source populations and habitat conditions of the area being colonized (Milner & Klaar, 2011). The Current Restoration Plan The specific mechanisms for achieving restoration of native anadromous fish populations has been defined in the Elwha Fisheries Recovery Plan (Ward, et. al., 2008). According to the plan efforts to recover naturally-reproducing salmon within the Elwha River basin will be achieved through the preservation of extant stocks of fish during the removal of the Elwha dams and through rehabilitation of all fish populations following dam removal. The priorities for the Elwha Plan include reestablishing self-sustaining anadromous salmonid populations and habitats, maintaining the integrity of existing salmonid genetic and life history diversity, maintaining fish health, and restoring physical and biological processes of the ecosystem (Ward, et al., 2008, p. xiv). The goals of the Recovery Plan are: 1. Re-establish self-sustaining anadromous salmonid populations in habitats of the Elwha River within 5 to 10 generations (i.e., 20 to 40 yrs); 2. Maintain the integrity of the existing native salmonid gene pools during the dam removal period; 3. Monitor pathogen distribution in fish populations before and after dam removal; and 4. Evaluate the physical and biological response of the overall ecosystem to dam removal and the return of salmon populations. The plan notes that hatcheries will be used to ensure that adequate numbers of fish survive the dam removal process to restore fish populations to the watershed. For example, the Tribe and its federal partners have developed a hatchery supplementation program for the native late-timed, natural-origin steelhead population (Ward, et al., 2008, p. xi). It also notes that Elwha River coho are of mixed origin stock, with some out-of-basin stock transfers from the 1950s- 1970s. Nevertheless, the plan states: the hatchery population maintained at the Lower Elwha Hatchery is considered healthy and the most appropriate donor stock for restoration-directed enhancement activities (Ward, et. al., 2008, p. xii). Habitat restoration on the mainstream of the Elwha River is listed as the highest priority following dam removal. Also it will be important to restore the nearshore habitat at the mouth of the River. The plan states that monitoring and adaption to changing conditions must be continued over the 17 year life of the project (Ward, et al., 2008, p. xiv). Back to the Future No salmon has spawned above the Elwha Dam for more than 90 years. It is highly unlikely that any genetic material from the original stock is still present in the fish that will recolonize the upper Elwha. How will they get there? They will stray. They will stray from stocks that have been utilizing the river below the dams for the last several decades and eventually they will stray from nearby watersheds as well. One thing is certain-- the future of salmon production in the river will not be representative of the past. It is probably unrealistic to expect that the highly functional habitat within the Olympic National Park boundary can act like a time machine and return us to the days of huge runs of all five species of salmon and 100 pound chinook. We are living in the future where the new salmon stocks of the Elwha are just beginning. This is a beginning that is tied to the habitat conditions of the entire river ecosystem. As the September, 2011 date for the beginning of the actual dam removal process grew imminent, a guest column appeared in The Seattle Times headed Restore the Elwha without hatchery fish. The authors argued that the recovery of salmon in the Elwha River could only reach its full potential without the use of hatchery fish. They claimed that hatchery fish would endanger the natural fish returning to the River. Though the article states that the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe should have the opportunity to exercise their treaty rights to catch salmon, it does not state how the Tribe can do this without having fish to catch, i.e., without supplementation of the wild stocks (Atlas, et al, 2011). Two months later the authors as members of the Wild Fish Conservancy filed a notice of intent to sue the Tribes, the Olympic National Park, and NOAA Fisheries over this issue (Mapes, 2011). Whatever the outcome of the lawsuit it will not change the fact that salmon are adapted to colonizing and maximizing population size in new habitats. The success of the colonizing efforts of any species of salmon are dependant on habitat quality, the distance and/or source of the colonizing population, the genetic health and compatibility of the colonizing population and the goals and management practices of the fishery science, harvest and habitat managers. A great deal of knowledge is available regarding what management practices can increase the likelihood of success of a salmonid colonizing effort. For the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe a trip back to the future may one day soon allow for the Tribe to reap the benefits from the application of this knowledge. References Atlas, W., Beardslee, K., Simms, R. (2011) Restore the Elwha without hatchery fish. The Seattle Times, July 12. Anderson, J. H., & Anderson, J. H. (2011). Dispersal and reproductive success of Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and coho (O. kisutch) salmon colonizing newly accessible habitat. University of Washington, Seattle. Blumm, M.S. (2002) Sacrificing the salmon: a legal and policy history of the decline of Columbia Basin salmon. BookWorld Publications Brown, J. & Footen, B. (2011) Pacific Northwest salmon habitat: The Culvert Case and the power of treaties. Enduring Legacies Native Case Studies.  HYPERLINK "http://nativecases.evergreen.edu/" http://nativecases.evergreen.edu/ Busack, C. A., and K. P. Currens. 1995. Genetic risks and hazards in hatchery operations: fundamental concepts and issues. Uses and effects of cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems v.15, pp.71-80 Busch, R. W. (2008-2009) Tribal Advocacy for Elwha River dams removal on Washingtons Olympic Peninsula. Golden Gate University Environmental Law Journal, v. 2, pp. 5-21. Chasan, B. D. J. (2011). Dam removal no one has a model of how to go forward Crosscut. Crosscut.com. Connolly, P. J., Kyle D. Martens, & Weigel, D. E. (2011). Efforts to reinvoke the steelhead life history in Beaver Creek. Colonization and reintroduction of anadromous salmonids. American Fisheries Society 141st Annual Meeting. DOI. (1995). Effects of suspended sediments on salmonids U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, p. 7. Duda, J.J., et al. (2008) Baseline studies in the Elwha River ecosystem prior to dam removal: Introduction to the special issue. Northwest Science, v. 82, pp. 1-2. Downloaded 10/24/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.3955/0029-344X-82.S.I.1" http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.3955/0029-344X-82.S.I.1 Elwha.Org.(Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe website) A brief history of the Elwha River: From treaty times to dam removal and River restoration. Downloaded 10/24/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://www.elwha.org/images/A_Brief_History_of_the_Elwha_River.pdf" http://www.elwha.org/images/A_Brief_History_of_the_Elwha_River.pdf Flagg, T. A., Berejikian, B. A., Colt, J. E., Walton, W., Harrell, L. W., Maynard, D. J., Nash, C. E., et al. (2000). Ecological and behavioral impacts of artificial production strategies on the abundance of wild salmon populations: A review of practices in the Pacific Northwest. NOAA NMFS, Pages: 92. Fullerton, A. H., Pess, George R., Lindley, S. T., & Rich W. Zabel. (2011). Prioritizing which salmon populations to re-establish: We opened it, now how long will it take? Colonization and reintroduction of anadromous salmonids. Seattle: American Fisheries Society 141st Annual Meeting. Gates, C. M, (1955) The Indian treaty of Point No Point. Pacific Northwest Quarterly. V. 26:2, pp 52-56. Lichatowich, J. (1999) Salmon without rivers: A history of the Pacific Salmon Crisis. Covelo, CA: Island Press. Mapes, L. V. (2011) Wild fish advocates plan to sue over Elwha hatchery. The Seattle Times, Sept. 16. Michalet, R. (2007). Ecological responses to the 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens. Mountain Research and Development v. 27:1, pp. 98-99. Downloaded 11/27/11 from:doi:10.1659/0276-4741(2007)27[98:ERTTEO]2.0.CO;2 Milner, A., & Klaar, M. (2011). Natural salmonid colonization of streams following glacial retreat. Colonization and reintroduction of anadromous salmonids. American Fisheries Society 141st Annual Meeting. Naish, K.A., et al (2008) An evaluation of the effects of conservation and fishery enhancement hatcheries on wild populations of salmon. Advances in Marine Biology, v. 53, pp. 61-194. Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission (2007) Comprehensive tribal natural resources management. 2007. An annual report from the treaty tribes in western Washington. Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission (2011) Comprehensive tribal natural resources management 2011. An annual report from the treaty tribes in western Washington. Downloaded 10/26/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://files.nwifc.org/annual/tribal-annual-report-2011.pdf" http://files.nwifc.org/annual/tribal-annual-report-2011.pdf Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission (2011) News (Fall) Northwest Power and Conservation Council (n.d.) Columbia River history: Hatcheries. Downloaded 9/25/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://www.nwcouncil.org/history/hatcheries.asp" http://www.nwcouncil.org/history/hatcheries.asp Puget Sound Chinook Salmon Hatcheries. (2004) A component of the comprehensive Chinook salmon management plan developed by Washington Dept. of Fish and Wildlife and Puget Sound Treaty Tribes. Reagan, A. B. (2908) Some notes on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Transactions of Kansas Academy of Sciences. v. 22 (Dec. 31) pp. 131-238. Reddick, S.M. and Collins, G.C. (2005) Medicine Creek to Fox Island: Cadastral scams and contested domains. Oregon Historical Quarterly, Fall, v. 106:3, pp. 374-397. Pess, G.R. (2011). Open it and they will come/ : Examples of river reconnection & salmon ( re ) colonization from the Pacific. Fisheries Science. Seattle: Northwest Fisheries Science Center NOAA Fisheries Science Center. Pess, G.R. (2009). Patterns and processes of salmon Colonization. University of Washington. Pess, G. R., McHenry, M. L., Beechie, T. J., & Davies, J. (2008). Biological Impacts of the Elwha River Dams and Potential Salmonid Responses to Dam Removal. Northwest Science, 82(sp1), 72-90. doi:10.3955/0029-344X-82.S.I.72 Taylor, J. E. (1999) Making salmon: An environmental history of the Northwest fisheries crisis. Seattle: University of Washington Press U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. (n.d.) Elwha and Glines Canyon dams, Elwha River near Port Angeles, Washington. Downloaded 10/24/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/sediment/projects/ElwhaRiver/ElwhaGlinesCanyon.htm" http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/sediment/projects/ElwhaRiver/ElwhaGlinesCanyon.htm US NOAA. Northwest Regional Office (2009) Endangered Species Act status of West Coast Salmon and Steelhead. Downloaded 10/26/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/ESA-Salmon-Listings/upload/1-pgr-8-11.pdf" http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/ESA-Salmon-Listings/upload/1-pgr-8-11.pdf U.S. NOAA. Northwest Regional Office. (2011) Hatchery ESA Listing Policy. Downloaded 10/26/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/Salmon-Harvest-Hatcheries/Hatcheries/Hatchery-ESA-Listing-Policy.cfm" http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/Salmon-Harvest-Hatcheries/Hatcheries/Hatchery-ESA-Listing-Policy.cfm) U.S. Olympic National Park (2007) Freeing the Elwha: Restoration in Olympics largest watershed. Downloaded 10/24/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://www.nps.gov/olym/naturescience/upload/elwharestoration.pdf" http://www.nps.gov/olym/naturescience/upload/elwharestoration.pdf Valadez, J. (2002) Elwha Klallam in Wray, J (ed) Native peoples of the Olympic Peninsula: Who we are. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Waples, R. S., D. J. Teel, and P. B. Aebersold. (1991). A genetic evaluation and monitoring program for supplemented populations of salmon and steelhead in the Snake River Basin. National Marine Fisheries Service Northwest Fisheries Science Center. Annual Report of Research, 89-096. Seattle, Washington Ward, L, et al. (2008) Elwha River fish restoration plan. Developed pursuant to the Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act, P.L. 102-145. U.S. Dept of Commerce. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NWFSC-90. Downloaded 10/24/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/assets/25/6760_06202008_151914_ElwhaPlanTM90Final.pdf" http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/assets/25/6760_06202008_151914_ElwhaPlanTM90Final.pdf Warren, T. (2011) Ceremony marks start of Elwha Dam removal project. Seattlepi (Dec. 6). Downloaded 12/6/11 from HYPERLINK "http://www.seattlepi.com/news/article/Ceremony-marks-start-of-Elwha-Dam-removal-project-2175912.php" \l "ixzz1fVYTzXFk" http://www.seattlepi.com/news/article/Ceremony-marks-start-of-Elwha-Dam-removal-project-2175912.php#ixzz1fVYTzXFk) Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife (2011) About WDFW. Downloaded 10/25/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://wdfw.wa.gov/about/" http://wdfw.wa.gov/about/ Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (2010) Washington State hatchery system: Historical context and legal foundation. Downloaded 10/25/11 from:  HYPERLINK "http://wdfw.wa.gov/hatcheries/slideshows/overview_of_state_hatchery_final.pdf" http://wdfw.wa.gov/hatcheries/slideshows/overview_of_state_hatchery_final.pdf Woods, F. (2005) Whos in charge of fishing? Oregon Historical Quarterly, Fall, v. 106:3, pp. 412-441.  Copyright (2011) held by 鶹. Please use appropriate attribution when using and quoting this case. Cases are available at the Native Cases website at http://nativecases.evergreen.edu . This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0817624.Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation  Brian Footen has a BS from 鶹 and received a MS dual degree in Fishery Science and Environmental Studies from The University of Washington and 鶹. He has worked with Tribal, Federal and State Fishery Departments in the State of Washington for twenty years. Jovana Brown is a retired faculty from 鶹.  Crown Zellerbach was a large paper manufacturing firm. It was acquired by the James River Company in 1986 which became Fort James Corporation in 1997,  Later groups such as the Sierra Club, Friends of the Earth. Seattle Audubon Society, and the Olympic Park Association took the position that the dams must come out. (Elwha.org Brief history of the Elwha River, p. 5)  The partners are: Olympic National Park, National Park Service, Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and the Northwest Fisheries Science Center of NMFS (NOAA Fisheries Service.)  See Footen, Ancestral roots and changing landscapes: The impact of Seattles development on the Salish Peoples of central Puget Sound. Enduring Legacies: Native Cases. http://nativecases.evergreen.edu/  See Brown and Footen, Pacific Northwest Salmon Habitat: The Culvert Case and the Power of Treaties, Enduring Legacies: Native Cases. http://nativecases.evergreen.edu/  See Footen, Co-management of Puget Sound salmon: How well does the use and collection of shared fishery science between the Tribes and the State guide resource protection. Enduring Legacies: Native Cases. http://nativecases.evergreen.edu/  Advocates for wild salmon in this instance are the  HYPERLINK "http://www.chron.com/?controllerName=search&action=search&channel=news&search=1&inlineLink=1&query=%22Wild+Fish+Conservancy%22" Wild Fish Conservancy, the  HYPERLINK "http://www.chron.com/?controllerName=search&action=search&channel=news&search=1&inlineLink=1&query=%22Wild+Steelhead+Coalition%22" Wild Steelhead Coalition and The Conservation Angler, all based in Washington state, along with the Montana-based  HYPERLINK "http://www.chron.com/?controllerName=search&action=search&channel=news&search=1&inlineLink=1&query=%22Federation+of+Fly+Fishers+Steelhead+Committee%22" Federation of Fly Fishers Steelhead Committee.  The ESA provides for the conservation of  HYPERLINK "http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/esa/" species that are endangered or threatened throughout all or a significant portion of their range, and the conservation of the ecosystems on which they depend. A  HYPERLINK "http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/glossary.htm" \l "species" "species" is considered endangered if it is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. A species is considered threatened if it is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future (US NOAA, Fisheries, Office of Protected Species).      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